Competitive and internal information Essay

Write an essay on the typical main sources of business information generated both internally and externally for public companies. How is such information used to establish a company’s place in the market? Illustrate your answer with examples from one or more business sectors of your choice. INTRODUCTION Information consists of data that have been retrieved, processed, or used for informative purposes, argument or as a basis for forecasting or decision making. Without information, a business cannot survive. A recipe for a good decision is 90 percent information and 10 percent inspiration. Information is the catalyst of management and the ingredient that coalesces the managerial functions of planning, operating controlling. Managers depend on information for making decisions. Any organization is held together by the possession of means for the acquisition, use, retention and transmission of information. The purpose of management system is to develop plans for achieving objectives, to organize for implementing plan and to control performance so that plans and actions occur on schedule. The place of information in performing these three basis processes is shown in the following. MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND INFORMATION NEED 1) Performance against plan 2) Environmental, Competitive and internal information concurring problem and opportunities. Evaluation of 1 and 2 in order to Make a prediction of estimate of Alternative courses of action Alternative source. Prediction of results for alternative Courses of action. Communicate details of plan and Control standards. Performance against PK In the above figure for information needs 1) In the the first step, recognition of problem or an opportunity is prompted by information from the control process concerning a deviation from standard or by search and evaluation of those system (environmental, competitive, Internal) 2) Definition of problem, determination and evaluation of alternative course of action. 3) Once a decision is made, it is necessary to implement and control a solution. Among the above steps, planning information needs of an organization can be classified into three broad types. 1) Environmental 2) Competitive 3) Internal 1) Environmental information It can be classified as (A) Political and Government consideration Some information on political stability is important for forecasting plans. (B) Demographic and Social trends Some information is necessary to forecast the Social Trends and consumer buying behavior for both the long and short run. (C) Economic Trends. Employment, Productivity and numerals other economic indicators provide valuable planning information for the firms whose output is a function of these important variables (D) Technological environment Some information is necessary to forecast the technological changes in their industry and probable effect on the firm. (2) Competitive information. Information concerning factors that affects the operation of the firm within an industry includes data concerning industry and firm demand as well as the data on the competitors. The information can be classified into three types. They are (a) Industry Demand. Information is needed for forecasting the demand for the Sale and the corresponding level of operation of a single firm. (b) Firm Demand The demand for products of an individual firm is a function of the Industry demand and the capabilities and activities of the individual firm relative to the capabilities and action of competing firms. (c) Competition Data on competing firms are very important for forecasting the individual demand and making decisions and plans to achieve the forecast. (3) Internal information They are vital for subsidiary planning at all levels in the organization. Internal data are aimed at an identification of the organization’s strength and weakness.. The types of internal information are (A) Sales forecast: Some information is necessary for forecasting the Sales. (B) The financial plan It is the system that links all activities of the company together. (C) Policies Some information is necessary to frame the basis policies for long run purpose. Data and information come from many sources – both internal (inside the business) and external. This revision note summarizes the main sources: Business data and information comes from multiple sources. The challenge for a business is to capture and use information that is relevant and reliable. The main sources are: INTERNAL INFORMATION Accounting records are a prime source of internal information. They detail the transactions of the business in the past – which may be used as the basis for planning for the future (e. g. preparing a financial budget or forecast). The accounting records are primarily used to record what happens to the financial resources of a business. For example, how cash is obtained and spent; what assets are acquired; what profits or losses are made on the activities of the business. However, accounting records can provide much more than financial information. For example, details of the products manufactured and delivered from a factory can provide useful information about whether quality standards are being met. Data analyzed from customer sales invoices provides a profile of what and to whom products are being sold. A lot of internal information is connected to accounting systems – but is not directly part of them. For example: – Records of the people employed by the business (personal details; what they get paid; skills and experience; training records) – Data on the costs associated with business processes (e. g. costings for contracts entered into by the business) – Data from the production department (e. g. number of machines; capacity; repair record) – Data from activities in direct contact with the customer (e. g. analysis of calls received and missed in a call centre) A lot of internal information is also provided informally. For example, regular meetings of staff and management will result in the communication of relevant information. SAMPLE SOURCES OF INTERNAL INFORMATION: Balance Sheet of ICICI PERIOD ENDING 31-Mar-00 Assets Current Assets Cash And Cash Equivalents 1,479,000 Short Term Investments – Net Receivables 194,000 Inventory – Other Current Assets – Total Current Assets – Long Term Investments 1,185,000 Property Plant and Equipment 48,000 Goodwill – Intangible Assets – Accumulated Amortization – Other Assets 81,000 Deferred Long Term Asset Charges – Total Assets 2,987,000 Liabilities Current Liabilities Accounts Payable – Short/Current Long Term Debt – Other Current Liabilities 2,454,000 Total Current Liabilities – Long Term Debt 57,000 Other Liabilities 215,000 Deferred Long Term Liability Charges – Minority Interest – Negative Goodwill – Total Liabilities 2,726,000 Stockholders’ Equity Misc Stocks Options Warrants – Redeemable Preferred Stock – Preferred Stock – Common Stock 45,000 Retained Earnings 44,000 Treasury Stock – Capital Surplus 171,000 Other Stockholder Equity 1,000 Total Stockholder Equity 261,000 Net Tangible Assets $261,000 Source: Yahoo Finance Stock movement of I-Flex solutions Series Date Prev Close Open Price High Price Low Price Last Price Close Price Total Traded Quantity Turnover in Lacs EQ 03-Mar-2008 1,078. 95 1,037. 00 1,080. 00 1,020. 00 1,029. 90 1,042. 55 17954 190. 31 EQ 04-Mar-2008 1,042. 55 1,020. 00 1,075. 00 1,017. 00 1,047. 65 1,048. 25 36723 382. 44 EQ 05-Mar-2008 1,048. 25 1,070. 00 1,070. 00 1,030. 15 1,045. 00 1,039. 20 22219 231. 63 EQ 07-Mar-2008 1,039. 20 1,021. 00 1,032. 00 983. 00 1,004. 95 1,001. 50 22103 220. 45 EQ 10-Mar-2008 1,001. 50 955. 00 1,040. 00 946. 40 1,005. 00 1,015. 50 19099 192. 55 EQ 11-Mar-2008 1,015. 50 992. 50 1,065. 00 992. 50 1,045. 00 1,054. 65 21805 226. 22 EQ 12-Mar-2008 1,054. 65 1,100. 00 1,100. 00 1,000. 00 1,004. 00 1,007. 45 13398 139. 14 EQ 13-Mar-2008 1,007. 45 987. 05 1,010. 00 952. 00 954. 00 959. 10 15931 155. 65 EQ 14-Mar-2008 959. 10 962. 00 992. 00 920. 00 990. 00 983. 15 21685 210. 01 EQ 17-Mar-2008 983. 15 925. 00 970. 00 925. 00 965. 00 942. 95 12307 116. 99 EQ 18-Mar-2008 942. 95 931. 00 958. 50 925. 10 927. 00 936. 50 21230 200. 13 EQ 19-Mar-2008 936. 50 970. 00 978. 00 922. 00 925. 00 925. 55 21245 199. 40 EQ 24-Mar-2008 925. 55 948. 00 950. 00 895. 00 905. 00 908. 25 21626 197. 55 EQ 25-Mar-2008 908. 25 913. 50 1,008. 00 913. 50 990. 10 992. 55 58576 571. 10 EQ 26-Mar-2008 992. 55 988. 90 1,027. 00 974. 00 974. 00 986. 85 33402 335. 28 EQ 27-Mar-2008 986. 85 975. 00 1,003. 00 935. 00 951. 05 947. 10 118566 1,140. 60 EQ 28-Mar-2008 947. 10 970. 00 994. 00 956. 00 976. 00 984. 40 21658 210. 89 EQ 31-Mar-2008 984. 40 970. 25 985. 00 935. 00 948. 20 941. 10 39622 376. 60 Source: NSEINDIA EXTERNAL INFORMATION As the term implies, this is information that is obtained from outside the business. There are several categories of external information: – Information relating to way a business should undertake its activities E. g. businesses need to keep records so that they can collect taxes on behalf of the government. So a business needs to obtain regular information about the taxation system (e. g. PAYE, VAT, Corporation Tax) and what actions it needs to take. Increasingly this kind of information (and the return forms a business needs to send) is provided in digital format. Similarly, a business needs to be aware of key legal areas (e. g. environmental legislation; health & safety regulation; employment law). There is a whole publishing industry devoted to selling this kind of information to businesses. – Information about the markets in which a business operates This kind of external information is critically important to a business. It is often referred to as â€Å"market† or â€Å"competitive intelligence†. Most of the external information that a business needs can be obtained from marketing research. Marketing research can help a business do one or more of the following: 1. Gain a more detailed understanding of consumers’ needs – marketing research can help firms to discover consumers’ opinions on a huge range of issues, e. g. , views on products’ prices, packaging, recent advertising campaigns 2. Reduce the risk of product/business failure – there is no guarantee that any new idea will be a commercial success, but accurate and up-to-date information on the market can help a business make informed decisions, hopefully leading to products that consumers want in sufficient numbers to achieve commercial success. 3. Forecast future trends – marketing research can not only provide information regarding the current state of the market but it can also be used to anticipate customer needs future customer needs. Firms can then make the necessary adjustments to their product portfolios and levels of output in order to remain successful. The information for marketing research tends to come from three main sources: Internal Company Information – e. g. sales, orders, customer profiles, stocks, customer service reports Marketing intelligence – this is a catch-all term to include all the everyday information about developments in the market that helps a business prepare and adjust its marketing plans. It can be obtained from many sources, including suppliers, customers and distributors. It is also possible to buy intelligence information from outside suppliers (e. g. Mintel, Dun and Bradstreet) who will produce commercial intelligence reports that can be sold profitably to any interested organization. Market Research – existing data from internal sources may not provide sufficient detail. Similarly, published reports from market intelligence organizations cannot always be relied upon to provide the up-to-date, relevant information required. In these circumstances, a business may need to commission specific studies in order to acquire the data required to support their marketing strategy. – http://tutor2u. net/business/ict/intro_information_sources. htm SOURCES OF BUSINESS INFORMATION Details of following types of organizations are required to be maintained by NCTI for guiding entrepreneurs/exporters to approach to the right organization for getting the desired information, assistance and help. †¢ Foreign Embassies/High Commissions/Consulate in India †¢ Indian Missions/Consulate abroad †¢ Chambers of Commerce & Industry †¢ Trade Promotion /Import Promotion Organizations †¢ Export Inspection Agencies †¢ Export Processing Zones in India and Abroad Details of these organizations are readily available with NCTI. – http://archives. nic. in/ncti/ncti8. htm SAMPLE SOURCES OF EXTERNAL INFORMATION: AMR Research Releases ERP Market Report Showing Overall Market Growth of 14% in 2004, Tuesday, June 14, 2005, Kevin Reilly As Market Consolidation Continues, Top 5 ERP Vendors Account for 72% of Revenue Today, AMR Research released its annual report on the state of the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) market. The Market Analytix Report: Enterprise Resource Planning, 2004-2009 revealed that ERP market revenues increased 14% in 2004. The report indicates that approximately one-third of the growth in the overall market was due to fluctuations in currency exchange rates. While the ERP market has grown in revenue, consolidation continues to change the industry. In 1999, the top five vendors (J. D. Edwards, Baan, Oracle, PeopleSoft, and SAP) in the ERP market accounted for 59% of the industry’s revenue. AMR Research expects the top five vendors in 2005 (SAP, Oracle, Sage Group, Microsoft, and SSA Global) to account for 72% of ERP vendors’ total revenue. â€Å"The ERP market showed solid organic growth in 2004 as IT spending improved,† says Jim Shepherd, vice president of research at AMR Research. â€Å"The market was also affected by consolidation within the segment, as well as ERP vendors acquiring best-of-breed players to broaden their portfolios. † While many ERP vendors struggled in 2004, SAP AG increased overall revenues by 17% and license revenues by 20% – without any acquisitions. SAP’s ERP market share increased to more than 40%. Oracle nearly doubled the size of its application business through the acquisition of PeopleSoft, but AMR Research expects SAP to finish 2005 with more than twice the revenue and market share of the combined Oracle-PeopleSoft. Report Findings and Analysis The report delivers revenue and growth rates for the top ERP players as well as growth forecasts through 2009. ERP vendors ranked by 2004 ERP license revenue can be seen in the chart below. The top ten ERP vendors by revenue include the following companies: The report revealed several trends that affected the ERP market in 2004, including: The ERP market is entering another major technology transition phase. Service Oriented Architectures (SOA) may have the same disruptive effect that other technologies have had on the market, such as the emergence of client-server systems had in the 1990’s. The pace of acquisitions shows no sign of slowing down. Oracle’s purchase of Retek and vendors like Sage Group, SSA Global, Infor Global Solutions, and Epicor have all been very active in the M&A space and have grown more rapidly than the overall ERP market. The midrange ($50M – $1B in annual revenue) and SMB (less than $50M in annual revenue) markets continue to be a major focus area for many of the ERP vendors. Midrange solutions and channels are critically important for penetrating China, India, Eastern Europe, and Latin America. ERP buyers have moved away from large, upfront purchases. Now most tend to license user seats and functional ERP modules incrementally as they deploy a product. Along with widespread discounting, this has led to smaller average deal sizes. BANK’S REPORT BY FDIC Dollar Amounts in Billions Fourth Quarter 2007 All Insured Institutions Commercial Banks Savings Institutions Credit Card Lenders Mortgage Lenders Number of FDIC-Insured 8,533 7,282 1,251 27 786 Number of FDIC-Supervised 5,197 4,772 425 10 317 Total Assets $ 13,039 11,176 1,863 479 1,334 Total Loans $ 7,906 6,626 1,280 369 944 Domestic Deposits $ 6,912 5,807 1,105 142 737 Net Income (QTR) $ 5. 816 10. 540 -4. 724 3. 027 -3. 230 Percent Profitable (QTR) % 82. 3 83. 2 77. 0 88. 9 79. 1 Average Return on Assets (QTR) % 0. 18 0. 38 -1. 00 2. 61 -0. 94 Average Return on Equity (QTR) % 1. 74 3. 76 -8. 70 11. 96 -10. 51 Net Interest Margin (QTR) % 3. 30 3. 38 2. 86 8. 97 2. 52 Equity to Assets % 10. 37 10. 24 11. 17 21. 26 8. 61 Noncurrent Loan Rate – Total Loans * % 1. 39 1. 30 1. 86 2. 00 1. 87 Real Estate Loans % 1. 71 1. 62 2. 01 1. 81 1. 94 C&I Loans % 0. 66 0. 64 0. 92 2. 21 0. 88 Consumer Loans % 1. 43 1. 48 0. 98 2. 10 0. 96 Coverage Ratio ** % 92. 54 102. 84 55. 35 207. 47 45. 74 Net Charge-Off Rate – All Loans (QTR) % 0. 83 0. 86 0. 68 4. 23 0. 66 Real Estate Loans (QTR) % 0. 44 0. 43 0. 49 2. 61 0. 54 C&I Loans (QTR) % 0. 87 0. 85 1. 24 5. 13 1. 35 Consumer Loans (QTR) % 2. 75 2. 77 2. 54 4. 39 3. 16 Source: http://www. fdic. gov/bank/statistical/stats/2007dec/industry. html REFERENCES ? James O’ Brien, Management Information system, Tata Mcgraw Hill, 2007, Pg. 245-267. ? AMR Research Releases ERP Market Report Showing Overall Market Growth of 14% in 2004, Tuesday, June 14, 2005 Kevin Reilly ? Yahoo Finance ? www. nseindia. com ? http://archives. nic. in/ncti/ncti8. htm ? http://tutor2u. net/business/ict/intro_information_sources. htm http://www. fdic. gov/bank/statistical/stats/2007dec/industry. html

Assignment on E- commerce Essay

It is an enormous pleasure to submit my assignment titled â€Å"E-commerce System â€Å"in Bangladesh. A closer study assigned as a required of our course related. In preparing this assignment I have acquired much knowledge about â€Å"E-commerce system†. I have tried my best to furnish the assignment with relevant data. Which I had to collect from online and related journal. I hope this assignment will help the banking sector to gather some insights on the widows to do further studies in this aspect. I would like to convey my tributes to you and thank you for giving me the opportunity to work on this topic. Your queries in this aspect will highly be expected. Thank you Sincerely your Amit kumar dey ID: 1101010174 Section: D 7th Semester (27th Batch) BBA Program Department of Business Administration Leading University Sylhet, Bangladesh. Dedication In dedication to all my friends and family who help me find happy monuments every day to celebrate Declaration This assignment paper is prepared by me. The title of this assignment is â€Å"E-commerce system†. A closer study â€Å"under the supervision of Mr.Md.Rahimullah Miah Lecturer of MIS, Leading University Sylhet, Bangladesh .Any duplication is prohibited without the permission of author Amit kumar dey ID: 1101010174 Section: D 7th Semester (27th Batch) BBA Program Department of Business Administration Leading University Sylhet, Bangladesh. Acknowledgement First of all pay a special thanks to my almighty God. Who made me able to complete this report? Then I would like to give thanks to renowned philanthropist Mr. Ragib Ali as he established Leading University and we got this opportunity to read here, after wards. I would like express my heartfelt gratitude to Prof Dr. Mr .Bashir Ahmed Bhuiyan, Head of the Department of business Administration, Leading University Sylhet. I would like to thanks our course instructor Mr. Md. Rahimulah Miah, respected Lecturer of Leading University for giving me this chance to make an assignment. My thanks also goes to my family members and friends who are cooperated with me at any of the steps of the assignment and continuously support me without any hesitation and make them safes an important part of this job. Author Letter of Acceptance This is to certify that Amit kumar dey ,ID: 1101010174 Section: D Semester:7thand 27- Batch, Department of Business Administration , Leading University , Sylhet , Bangladesh has completed his assignment work entitled on â€Å" E-commerce system. †A closer study under my supervision. He has completed his work with sincerity, commitment and dedication. He discussed different issues and problems with me to meet the requirement of this study and preparing the assignment. I wish all the best in his effort. Mr. Md. Rahimullah Miah Lecturer of MIS. Department of business administration Leading University, Sylhet, Bangladesh. Abstract Ecommerce (Sometimes called web- based) commerce is the term used to describe the activity of doing business on the internet. It including business to business, business to consumer and even consumer to consumer transactions that involve the buying and selling of goods and service, the transactions of funds, and even the exchange of ideas. Ecommerce including functions such as marketing manufacturing, finance, selling and negotiations. Ecommerce is not as new concept in Bangladesh any more, ecommerce that started its journey in Bangladesh in the last 90s and since then it continued to grow. This study concentrates on assessing the elements of the environment relation to ecommerce to get the best picture of the prevailing condition and then recommending some areas of improvement on the basis of the assessment for deploying ecommerce in Bangladesh. Chapter- one 1. Introduction. 1.1 E-commerce: Electronic commerce or ecommerce is a term for any type of business, or commercial transaction that involves the transfer of information across the internet. It covers range of different types of businesses, from consumer based retail sites, through auction or music sites, to business exchanges trading goods and services between corporations. It is currently one of the most important aspects of the internet to emerge. Ecommerce allows consumers to electronically exchange goods and services with no barriers of time or distance. Electronic commerce has expanded rapidly over the past five years and is predicted to continue at this rate, or even accelerate. In the near future the boundaries between â€Å"conventional† and â€Å"electronic â€Å"commerce will become increasingly blurred as more and more businesses move sections of their operations onto the internet. 1.1.1 Background of e commerce Since the 1990s, with the breakthrough of network, communications and IT, the Internet had a global growth and rapidly became popular. And e-commerce was born. E-commerce is a new business model based on the Internet with two transacting parties, bank electronic payment and settlement as means and customer data as support, which can make buyers and suppliers more closely linked, and meet customers’ demand faster, and also allows buyer to choose the best suppliers in the global market and sell their products worldwide. Since â€Å"electronic commerce† in1998, e-commerce all around the world was developing rapidly that the transactions doubles in about every nine months. The global e-commerce transactions (including online trade, sales, etc.) reach hundreds of billions dollars, and e-commerce revenue has soared by 262 percent. Countries all over the world have a very positive attitude to e-commerce- the new continent. They generally consider the development of electronic commerce an important driver of world economic development in the next 25 years. The promotion effect to the economy will be far more than the Industrial Revolution 200 years ago. Well-known network economic researcher and critic Robert Metcalfe claimed that: â€Å"The value of the Internet is equal to the square of the number of outlets (linking with it). Currently, the online shops are booming and constantly improved. Types of products sold online are diversity. Drugs once thought impossible for buying and selling have become a reality. Representative one is Canada Pharmacy. Even some people sell their time online. They do things for people who are too busy and get money from them. 1.2 Objectives of the studs To identify prospect of e commerce system in Bangladesh To make suggestion on the basis of findings. To provide precise knowledge of e commerce and its infrastructure. To narrate the present scenario of e commerce in Bangladesh To identify the usage rate and satisfaction level of e commerce customers. To highlight some recommendations for rendering e commerce services effectively. 1.3 Scope of the study The scope of the study is limited to the issues related to the ecommerce in Bangladesh. The assignment will focus only on the business locality provider of the country through internet network system. 1.4 Limitations of the study Due to time constraints the study has been conducted only one commerce service on secondary information. A microscopic analysis (aggregate analysis) has been made here for the unavailability of appropriate data in some cases. To prepare this assignment I have faced a lot of problems such as unavailability of lab, electricity problem, unavailability of related book and journals lock of time, unavailability of information in net etc. 1.5 Methodology of the study The assignment has been done mainly based on secondary sources of data or information secondary data has been collected from different publication material and Web site as well as the book and material from different libraries the hand not of the various seminars 1.6 Literature Review Tornatsky and Fleischer’s Theory The best literature for this is from Tormatsky and Fleischer’s theory. The Tornatsky and Fleischer’s theory comprises two important foundations stages in e commerce factors of the adoption and implementation of e commerce in SMEs. According to Jennnex and lertwongsation who used Tornatzky and Fleischer’s model, the reliability of this foundation will directly impact the ability of SMEs to implement e commerce. Chapter Two 2. General context of the study With the increasing diffusion of ICTS, more specifically the internet, the global business community is rapidly moving to words business to business (B2B) e commerce. The bussers importer gain a clear advantage when the internet gives them access to the global market, by which they can compare price across regions, find out whether price very by order fragmentation, get awareness about substitute alternative products consequently the sellers exporters make sure that they are well portrayed in the cyber world through websites and portals. Like buyers, sellers also benefit from increased and more efficient access to the global market through the imternet. Bangladesh is pursuing an economic policy export led growth with the rising forces of globalization, it is becoming increasingly important that the private sector particularly the export sectors are well prepared to meet the requirements and in the competition against exporters in other countries. In such a scenario two issues are becoming particularly important for Bangladeshi export sectors one whether business are automating their internal processes with the use of ICTS to become increasingly efficient and competitive in a global content and two whether business have efficient and competitive in a global context and two whether businesses have effective presence and participation in the cyber world. 2.2.1 E commerce in different sector in Bangladesh Despite being a under developed country selected segment of the Bangladeshi business community has embraced technology with reasonable success, personal computer and the internet are also emerging as day to day business tolls These positive indicators are levering the prospect of e commerce in Bangladesh. RMG Sector . Banking on the web (online bank). Online shopping. Web hosting, domain. Online cards, gifts. Pay Bill. Education. Etc. 2.2 Some e commerce shop in Bangladesh www.web Bangladesh.com. www.hoat bazar.com. www.number shop.com. www.bdbazar.com www.sonarmarketplace.com. www.upoharbd.com. www.bdgift.com. www.cellbazar.com. 2.3 The impact of e commerce E commerce can transform the way products and service one created sold and delivered to the customers, It can also change the way in which the company works with its partners. The following are well established benefits of e commerce. Improved productivity : Using e commerce the time required to create, transfer and process a business transaction between trading partners is signifieantly reduced of data entry and recenty in the process. This improvement in speed and accuracy plus the access to document and information will result in increase in productivity. Cost savigs: The cost savings stem from efficient communication, Quicker turnaround and closer access to market. Better customer service: customer can enjoy the convenience of shopping at any hour and anywhere in the world. Opportunities for new business: Business over the inter net have global customer reach. There are endless possibilities for business to exploit and expand their customer base. 2.4 challenges of e commerce for Bangladesh Network Infrastructure. Intra bank and interbank connectivity. Local and global. Bank client connectivity. Security of transaction. Banking mechanism Automation Convertibility of the Bangladesh currency. Retention quota. International credit cards. Capacity building: Human. Technical and Regulatory. Quick settlement, online credit information. Skilled e manpower. Investment Legal infrastructure. Currency convertibility: Access to global finance. 2.5 Akhoni.com Akhoni offers discounts up to 90in Dhaka city on popular business like dining, Travel, Entertainment, Movies, Soap, Healthcare service, Fitness centers, Beauty parlors and lot more Akhoni.com is a website that brought a new horizon in the e commerce industry of Bangladesh. Unlike the other business websites, it does not sell/ buy or act as a third party between two people. The customer can use the coupons published on this website and based on the amount of discount can save lots of money while purchasing the particular product from the particular shop. How it works: To use the website, one customer has to go with the following steps: Step one: Sign up with Akhoni.com. to get crazy discount notifications right in your email inbox. Step two: Buy and receive coupon to purchase a deal, click on view details and buy/ buy now button. Instant pay option: safely pay with you visa/ Master card/DBBL, Nexus card and from mobile phone through bash. Pay on coupon delivery option: Click pay as on coupon delivery if you want to pay later. Collect from Akhoni.com office: 8, Gulshan, South, Avenue, unite-53 Gulshan-1 Dhaka-1212. Step three: show your coupon to the merchant at his/her other and enjoy the discount. SWOT Analysis Strength 1.Anew concept in there commerce industry of Bangladesh. 2.Very few on no competitor at all. Weakness 1.Based on Dhaka city mostly. 2.The coupons given are of limited merchant that means this website does not cover the entire premises of consumer choice. Opportunity 1.Since the concept is new and Lucrative, the website has bright future through jot the country. 2.In future, this website may include the merchants of different other fields like FMCG, cloths, Foods etc. Threat: 1.Since the market has no competition any day new entrants may come up with new offers. 2.Discount packages of mobile phone companies (GP Thank you) can be a threat. 2.6 Advantages of Ecommerce Faster buying/selling procedure, as well as easy to find products. Buying/selling 24/7. More reach to customers, there is no theoretical geographic limitations. Low operational costs and better quality of services. No need of physical company set-ups. Easy to start and manage a business. Customers can easily select products from different providers without moving around physically. 2.7 Disadvantages of Ecommerce Any one, good or bad, can easily start a business. And there are many bad sites which eat up customers’ money. There is no guarantee of product quality. Mechanical failures can cause unpredictable effects on the total processes. As there is minimum chance of direct customer to company interactions, customer loyalty is always on a check. There are many hackers who look for opportunities, and thus an ecommerce site, service, payment gateways, all are always prone to attack. Chapter three 3. Methodology of the study 3.1 Site Selection: The topic chosen for the assignment is â€Å"e commerce system.† 3.4 Site Design: I work with non-government sector and also include government sector. 3.5 Country Map: 3.6 Data Collection: All the data and inflation which s elated to my task was collected from secondary sure. 3.7 Data Analysis: I use Microsoft word and Microsoft power point to prepare this assignment. Chapter four 4. Result and Discussion Bangladesh has recently entered into the world of e-commerce. Bangladesh Bank (BB) opened up the e-commerce transactions in the net in 2009. Subsequently Dutch-Bangla Bank Limited (DDBL) has launched Internet Payment Gateway (IPG) in the name of Nexus-Gateway in June, 2010 and BRAC Bank in December, 2010. Meantime, a few e-merchants have developed their web-sites and linked with the IPG of the banks. The complete journey of e-commerce has four steps. These include the go-ahead signal of the central bank, launching internet payment gateway (IPG) by commercial banks after obtaining go ahead signal of the central bank, development of appropriate website by e-merchants to display and sale their products and services, and buying of goods and services by the customers from the e-merchants. The merchant commission — a fee to be paid by the merchant to the bank in percentage of the sale value — is higher for e-commerce transaction than that of the POS transaction. The e-merchant also needs to pay a fee to the owner of the web portal if the website is not owned by him. On the other hand, an e-merchant does not require establishing shops at the prominent and costly locations of a city; they only have to maintain warehouses in various low cost locations from where they can deliver goods to the different parts of the city / country easily with minimum transportation cost. The ultimate result is: the e-commerce players are at a competitive advantage to retailers. They have lower operating expenses and better inventory management due to operating in a virtual commerce environment. For example, amazon.com has revenue per employee of nearly $850k while its retail counterpart, Best Buy, generates revenue per employee of only $270k. Chapter five 5. Recommendations The assessment of the e-commerce environmental forces of Bangladesh leave us some room to recommend some steps and measures, that should be undertaken by the policy makers and business stake holders for the full-fledged implementation and development of e-commerce in Bangladesh. There commendations are: There should be an EFT (Electronic Fund Transfer) Gateway, which will connect all finance and banking institutions, ATMs, POS and related websites. Such Gateway will speed up the transactions among banks, commercial institutions. This sort of infrastructure needs to be implemented on priority basis. A CCG (Credit Card Gateway) should be established. A credit card gateway is a server that makes online credit card transactions safe(Skinner, 2005). The software protocols in the CCG use the information provided to check for availability of funds and to make sure the credit card is not expired, lost or stolen. This takes only seconds. When the transaction is approved a receipt is generated for the customer, and the funds are transferred to the vendor’s bank account through EFT. Unlicensed radio frequencies should be made available on demand andesite operating licenses should not limit the bandwidth. To improve banking mechanism, Bangladesh government should compel the banking sectors to automate their operation and going online by a specific period. The control of foreign exchange should be liberalized gradually, and easier issuance of International Credit Cards should be allowed, banks should take effective steps here. Business associations and organizations should be made aware of the benefits of e-commerce. Business organizations like FBCCI, DCCI, MCCI, and BGMEA can play a significant role in promoting e-commerce in Bangladesh. Political commitment to improve governance and institutional strengths essential for successful application of e-commerce. Last but not least, National ICT policy, 2002 and enactment of the ICTAct, 2005 is required to enhance the implementation of e-commerce. 6. CONCLUSION A key reason why e-commerce, especially the business-to-business segment, is growing so quickly is its significant impact on costs associated with inventories, sales execution, procurement, intangibles like banking, and distribution costs. If these reductions become pervasive, e-commerce has the potential to be the application that ushers in the large productivity gains. Achieving these gains is therefore contingent on a number of factors, including access to e-commerce systems and the needed skills. However, what is unique about ecommerce over the Internet and the efficiency gains is that it promises the premium placed on openness. To reap the potential cost savings fully, firms must be willing to open up their internal systems to suppliers and customers. This raises policy issues concerning security and potential anti-competitive effects as firms integrate their operations more closely. Chapter six References Website: www.google.com www.bookrags.com www.e commercefair.com www.google.com//assingnmentone commerce in Bangladesh www.scribd.com/doc/ www.scibd.com>reserch>business &in Bangladesh www.slideshare.net/mobile-bankingsystem in Bangladesh Appendices Questionnaire: 1. For how many years you are using e-commerce? (i)Less than one year (ii)One year but

Understanding consumer decision process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Understanding consumer decision process - Essay Example In the market situation, interacting factors determines the movement of products and services. One important factor in the conceptualization and production of products and commodities is the target market. The consumers' reaction to products offered commands the possible success of certain products. Consumers utilize goods and services on a daily basis. In the present era wherein every product that a consumer can possibly need is available in the market, producers compete mainly on the quality of products and goods offered.The consumers mainly comprise the target market of goods and products produced in the market, thus, factors that affect their decision process with regards to the purchase of different products and services in the market is studied. The study of factors that contribute to the choice of consumers is an important field that can be explored. Every choice made by the buyers specifically the type of products to buy, the brand, the size and other specifications are affec ted by factors (Johnson, & Mullen, 1990, p.1). To be able to better demonstrate the behavior of the consumer with regards to the choices made in buying any goods in the market, a certain product is chosen and studied.Personal items such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and perfumes are items that are widely available in the market. Perfumes are products that are available in the market that are produced from the mixture of aromatics or chemical compounds with distinct smell. Through the history, the role of perfumes has evolved from being a fashion and luxury item to a personal necessity (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2006). In a survey conducted products that are considered of personal necessity has an increasing trend with regards to sales in the market. Perfume and other cosmetic items comprise 10.84% of the sales for the second quarter of 2004 which is comparatively higher than the same period in 2003 (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Statistica, 2004). One company that distributes perfumes in the market is the Ralph Lauren. The company was established in the 70's when Ralph Lauren himself started producing ties and men's wear and in 1971 started designing women's line. It was in the 1978 when Ralph Lauren produced the first line of fragrance and perfume collection. The collection started only from one kind of perfume for each gender (Ralph Lauren Media, 2006). Based on the 2005 report of the company, 9.4% of the total sales were derived from the line perfumes produced (Polo Ralph Lauren, 2006). The perfumes and fragrances are types of products that focus on different target markets. There are perfumes for both men and women and for any ages. Another type of customization with regards to these fragrances is the type of activities that the consumers are involved in. There is a product line that fits subdued activities such those consumers that wear perfumes when going to work. One product line targets the active individuals. This line is called the Ralph Lauren Polo Sports perfume which has two different variants, for men and for women. The target of this perfume line is the particular groups of individuals that are health conscious and either engaged in sports and other physical fitness activities. This group belongs to the population with age ranging from 20 years of age and with no upper limit that are fit and sporty individuals. These products were produced by RL in response to the 90's trend towards the development of a healthy and active lifestyle through sports and ex ercise enthusiasm (Ralph Lauren Media, 2006). The Consumer Behavior In the study of the marketability of any products, an important focus is given to the behavior of the consumers. The consumer behavior encompasses the practices involved in the sales of any products in the market. It is studied through the combined tools of different scientific fields such as sociology, psychology and other related fields that explore human behavior in the society

Numerical integral Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Numerical integral - Research Paper Example Before Cavalieri introduced the system of indivisibles, Archimedes had also been working on the same thing. Archimedes had developed a method of calculating areas and volumes, but he was not willing to reveal his method. Elroy states that â€Å"Cavalieri developed a rational system of the so-called indivisibles and attempted to establish the validity of this approach† (63). Without the formalism of the integral itself, Cavalieri derived a number of basic theorems of integral calculus from his principles. Cavalieri’s method of calculation is accurate for parallelograms and plane figures lying between two parallel lines (Elroy 63). In 1639, Cavalieri obtained the power rule for integration of a polynomial, although the rule had been discovered three years before by Gilles de Roberval and Pierre de Fermat. A method for representing areas, lines, and volumes by indivisibles of a lower dimension than the continuous whole that is made by them, was thus developed by Cavalieri. Sriraman points out that â€Å"in his theory, Cavalieri stated that if two solids have the same height, then their volumes will be proportional to the areas of their bases† (7). The integration of f(X) =Xn was worked out through this method. According to Wolfram Research, Inc, an integral is a mathematical item that can be defined as an area or an abstraction of an area (â€Å"Integral† Wolfram.com). Integration on the other hand is â€Å"the process of computing or obtaining an integral† (â€Å"Integration†). Integrals have been used in a number of ways namely: 1. In calculation of volume, area, mass and length: Integration is basically applied in Physics and Mathematics. With integration, it is possible to describe the curved area of a plane in terms of functions, and area and perimeter, in terms of integrals. Integration is also used to calculate the mass of an

Descriptive or Inferential Statistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Descriptive or Inferential Statistics - Essay Example It is hard to find private school teachers and keep them, since twice as many change schools. Catholic school teachers are also paid 25 to 40 percent less than public school teachers (paras. 16 and 20). These statistics support the argument that Catholic schools are not the answer for every child. Later on the author cites a series of statistics about how parents are applying for vouchers and scholarships. Scholarships support 14,000 students nationwide and the waiting list is 40,000 (para. 29). This is really amazing and supports the point that parents would choose private schools for their children if they could afford the tuition. The statistic only shows that 40,000 parents would prefer that their kids attend private school, and the article does not say what percent that group is out of the 49 million total children. Overall, the statistics presented in this article are interesting but not really related to the main point. A reader would have to trust the source in order to be convinced by the argument, or would have to trust the interviewee’s comments more than statistics. As far as statistics go, so few are in the article that they do not really help make the

Television Incorporated and Face Validity Case Study - 91

Television Incorporated and Face Validity - Case Study Example Jack makes a decision to reduce some of her duties so that she can resume to her normal level of success but things get worse with so many tasks left undone. The person job fits and placement are applied in this case as we see Ada performing so well in her tasks in the first few months before she is overcome with the work overload that she initiated by requesting more tasks from Jack. Face validity is a form of validity that is used to determine if a measure has given the expected results in regards to what it was supposed to measure. In this case, face validity was used to make decisions in various instances. First, Jack is able to pick Ada among the applicants since her credentials show that she can fit in the job of an administrative assistant. Second, Jack used face validity to summon Ada and reduce her duties and responsibilities since he notices the gradual change in how Ada is performing her tasks. The steps in validating a selection device include observing the behavior of an employee and noting whether he or she is performing tasks as allocated. If there is a gradual change as seen in the case of Ada, get concerned and seek to get a solution to the problem. If multiple predictors are used it becomes easier to make a decision that is in line with the firm or organizational goal. Jack has applied predictors in such a case to handle the case related to Ada. The compensatory approach seems to be ineffective here since Ada is not ready to let off some duties even after Jack noting that she is not doing well in her tasks. In addition, after Jack reduces her workload, it becomes worse than it was before as Ada is unable to perform her tasks Validity generalization would not be appropriate for jobs at AAA television. It is clear that there are many tasks associated with AAA television and they are interrelated. If one employee slows down, the rest are affected.

Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 8

Music - Essay Example and ran up to 1000A.D. Gregory, a Christian pope who served for 14 years, from 590 A.D. is believed to have largely contributed to the type of music. One of the major characteristics of the medieval period music is the monophonic feature that developed a single melody line for a piece of music. Polyphonic types of music however developed late in the period, after the 12th century, but this music type remains unique and cannot be confused with music from other periods (Thinkquest, n.d.). The renaissance period, a two-century long duration, marks the second phase of music’s history. Even though the period’s developments were engineered from the church, secular artists soon took centre stage and significantly dominated music. The basis of transition from the medieval period to the renaissance period was emotional attachment that was associated with words in music. The initiative that was developed by a church bishop was then followed by more advancement such as use of instruments in music. The polyphonic type of music in the period also differed from the one that developed in the medieval period (Thinkquest, n.d.). The end of the 17th century marked a transition from the renaissance music period to the baroque period that lasted for about a century and a half. It marked significant developments in music’s history with development of art that was â€Å"highly ornate, colorful and richly textured† (Thinkquest, n.d., p. 1). The period also incorporated other forms of art such as poetry into music’s presentation and involved higher-level application of instruments in music besides establishment of homophony as a music style. Polyphonic style of music also advanced besides other approaches such as orchestra, opera, and vocal music approaches (Thinkquest, n.d.). Classical period marked the end of baroque period in the year 1750 A.D. It involved transitions into a more balanced, proportionate and principled approach that marked a

Causes and Effects of Global Warming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Causes and Effects of Global Warming - Essay Example Nonetheless, numerous ways causes and effects usually lead to these climate change pieces of evidence and the causes and effects of global warming are discussed in this essay. The primary cause of global warming is the emission of carbon dioxide from the burning fossil fuel burning mainly from power plants and locomotive. Numerous nations including the United States have the addition of the use of electricity from burning coals have increasingly emitted enormous amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. For instance, 40 percent of the United States’ carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere originates from the production of electricity. Moreover, nearly its 93 percent emission is from burning coal that is also pegged on the utilization of electricity in industries (Haldar, 2011). Therefore, the immense production of electricity from burning coal in the United States among other countries will only increase emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere thereby increasin g the effects of global warming. Carbon dioxide emission from burning gasoline is another cause of global warming. This cause is also increasing the intensity of global warming since numerous people like using locomotives; hence, the more the use of cars among other locomotives that use gasoline, will only increase the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere; thus, intensifying the effects of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Additionally, the increasing population increases the consumption of gasoline due to increased purchase and use of cars (Haldar, 2011). Other than use in cars, gasoline is also used in other industrial manufacturing processes; therefore, the increased on the demand on items that are manufactured by using gasoline, will increase the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere thereby addition the injury of increased global warming.

Attorney disciplinary board vs. Moothart Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Attorney disciplinary board vs. Moothart - Essay Example The disciplinary action taken against the attorney was an indefinite suspension of his practicing license without a possibility of reinstatement for at least 30 months. Additionally, the attorney was required to undergo evaluation by a health professional and provide proof of participating in sexual harassment counseling before being considered fit to practice law again. This decision was based on the nature of the violations committed by the attorney, his fitness to continue practicing law and the desire to protect the public from the unethical practice of law. Moreover, it is important to maintain confidence in the justice system, maintain the reputation of the bar and deter the occurrence of such behavior. The decision was also influenced by aggravating factors such as the vulnerability of the women who believed they needed the attorney's help and the attorney’s pattern of unsuitable behavior over the years. The conduct was harmful to the women the attorney interacted with and those he represented and, therefore, the disciplinary action was appropriate(Justia Law, 2015).It is unprofessional and violates rules of professional conduct for a lawyer to engage in sexual harassment while in the practice of law. In this context, an attorney-client relationship is not required provided the lawyer is engaged in the practice of law. Sexual harassment includes both verbal and physical conduct of a sexual nature and includes sexual requests, favors, and advances.

Conflict between Science and Religion Essay Example for Free

Conflict between Science and Religion Essay There have been numerous dissensions between science and religion. The central belief that the earth was the center of the universe prior to the presentation of the Copernican system was held in the primacy of man in the scheme of things, as designed by the will of God. The presentation that the earth was not the center of the universe was met with criticisms. The objections were not helped when it was found that our solar system is not even at the center of the universe but rather located in a spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy—one in a cluster of some two dozen galaxies, an infinitesimal part of a universe composed of millions of galaxies. One can only imagine how the religious sector reacted on the principle that our own Milky Way Galaxy is not even close to the center of the vast space of the universe. Conflict between science and religion climaxed when in 1859, Charles Darwin advanced his theory of evolution from natural selection in his work â€Å"On the Origin of Species† which was met with criticisms. The idea that God has not created man and placed him in the Garden of Eden was seen as an insult to Biblical teachings. Even today, evolution is a subject vigorously debated by those who support the theory and antievolutionists, especially those who call themselves creationists. Evidences show, however, that evolution indeed exists and continue to exist. The long evolutionary journey of species has even left its imprints upon the embryo of the individual organism. Despite conflicts between science and religion and an apparent steady movement away from religion, Arnold Toynbee held that man will turn from materialism to technology back to religion and spiritual values. For some time each religion will maintain its identity and minister to its own adherents, but as they are faced with a â€Å"shrinking† world, a positive tolerance will replace their traditional fanaticism.

An Overview Of Teenage Pregnancy Sociology Essay

An Overview Of Teenage Pregnancy Sociology Essay In the U.S, about one million teenage girls get pregnant every year and this greatly affects the lives of the teenagers, the children they bare and the society at large. The social behavior and attitude towards sex has greatly contributed to the increase of teenage pregnancy since sex is publicly glorified and is even used as a marketing tool. Teenagers are engaging in sexual activities at an early age since they are exposed to it even before they are mature. It is the role of parents to try and bring up their children in a morally upright manner and advice them on the effects of early pregnancies in their lives. The causes and effects of teenage pregnancy are more of the same. They include poverty, unemployment, and lack of education, low self esteem and in some cases, abuse. Factors leading to teenage pregnancy The causes of teenage pregnancy are both social an also economical. The lack of knowledge on the consequences of teenage pregnancy among the teenagers is the primary factor that leads to teenagers to engage in irresponsible sexual practices. Another contributing factor is the up bringing of the children. The way parents bring up their children as well as the kind of environment they are brought up in contributes realty to the sexual behavior of a child. Parents who do not communicate openly to with their children on social issues such as sex are putting their children at the risk of being teenage parents. The lack of open communication between the children and the parents encourages the children to find other sources of information and in most cases, they go to their fellow students or older friends who may end giving them the wrong or misleading information. On the other hand, children who are brought in an environment that consists of many cases of teenage pregnancies or even in situations where the parents are single mothers or were victims of teenage pregnancy are more likely to follow the same course since it is something normal in their ‘world. The way a child is brought up defines who they are in terms of emotional maturity as well as their communication skills. When children are not taught how to communicate and air their views openly and boldly, they end up suffering from low self esteem and this makes them easy targets and increases their chances of being vulnerable to peer pressure which is also responsible for teenage pregnancy. This lack of communication and guidance from parents also contributes to the childs irresponsible behavior. Poverty is another major factor that contributes to teenage pregnancy. In most low income earning areas, the are no facilities that are used to educate children on the effects of engaging in sexual activities at an early age. In some cases, the children are forced to engage in sexual activities as a way of getting money to support themselves and their families. The wealthier people in these areas take advantage of the young children and promise them a better life in exchange for sex. Ignorance is also another aspect that is come in these areas and is usually brought about by the lack of education. When parents are not well educated, they do not see the importance of educating or discussing sex and other issues that affect the teenagers and the children end up messing up since they were not advised. The kind of messages that are sent to teenagers about sex are also contributing factors to the early engagement in sex which leads to teenage pregnancy. Todays culture glorifies sex and does not put into consideration nor is it accountable for its consequences. The social attitudes on the other hand do not provide a conducive environment for open discussions on sex and resources are not also available for the same. From studies, there are some factors such as poor performance in school that force the children to drop out and when they do, the chances o them engaging in sexual activities are very high and they end up getting pregnant. There are many children who are victims of sexual abuse and this completely messes up with their views and attitude towards sex. These children end up perceiving themselves as sexual objects from an early age and this increases the cases of teenage pregnancy. Effects of teenage pregnancy The effects of teenage pregnancy are felt by the individual victims and also the society. When school going teenagers get pregnant, most of them opt to drop out of school due to shame and also so that they can prepare themselves for the coming baby and motherhood in general. On the other hand, teenage fathers are not in a position to support their families financially so they also end up dropping out of school so that they can work and provide for their family. Since getting a job without education is hard, the students find themselves engaging in criminal activities and drug abuse as they try to find solutions to their state. Most teenage mothers do not have any support from their families so they and up becoming a part of the lower society whereby they are not able to access basic needs such as health care and well balanced diets. This affects their health and the health of their children and sometimes may lead to complications during child birth. Teenage parents pose a great economic and social risk to the society since they are not financially stable. Dropping out of school, doing drug and also engaging in criminal activities by teenage fathers affect the community in terms of the level of security. Dropping out of school means that one is not well educated and therefore, they cannot secure good jobs and this increases the cases of joblessness and this pull down the economic status of the society. When one is not educated, their level of productivity socially and economically goes down and this affects the community at large. Ways of preventing teenage pregnancy. Teenagers should be encouraged not to engage in sexual activities at an early age and they should also be well informed on early pregnancy and its effects. The students should be well educated on the topic of sex as a whole should be discussed in schools and this will help in the reduction of cases of teenage pregnancy. The teenagers should also be educated on the ways of preventing pregnancy and also ways of ensuring safe sex. They should be allowed to access contraceptives as well as family planning services without age being an issue and confidentiality should be assured. Parents on the other hand have a great role to play in ensuring that their children are brought up morally upright and that they should instill confidence and a sense of responsibility in their children so that they can be able to make wise choices and not be pulled away by peer pressure. Motivating children on positive life options and also enhancing the skills of the children I other ways apart from education is also very important since children know that they have a future despite their performance in school and this reduces the cases of school drop outs who would have otherwise ended up getting pregnant.

Utopian Society in Shakespeares The Tempest :: essays research papers

The study of Shakespeare’s The Tempest raises many questions as to its interpretation. Many believe that this play shows Shakespeare’s views on the colonization of the new world whereas others believe that this is a play about the ever elusive â€Å"Utopian Society†. I believe that this is a play about the European views of society and savagery at that time. I also believe that, if this is true, the play doesn’t portray a â€Å"conventional† view of native peoples. Shakespeare shows this by having Prospero, the rightful duke of Milan and Usurping ruler of the island, call Caliban, â€Å"A devil, a born devil on whose nature nurture can never stick† but then having Miranda, Prospero’s daughter, say â€Å"I pitied thee, took pains to make thee speak, taught thee each hour one thing or another.† Prospero is saying that Caliban is a â€Å"savage† who can not be educated, yet we hear that Miranda has taught him to speak, amongst other things. This gives a conflicting view over the character of Caliban. Is he an â€Å"uncivilised savage† or is he a â€Å"normal† human being? The treatment of Caliban could be seen as a representation of the colonisation of the new world, (The Americas) and the treatment of the native Americans. However, the critic Meradith Anne Skura believes the opposite, â€Å"We have no external evidence that seventeenth century audiences thought the play referred to the new world.† This interpretation of the play places more emphasis upon the character of the spirit Ariel, who could also be considered as a native of the island. Prospero frees Ariel from a tree and then enslaves the spirit to do his bidding under the promise of total freedom. Caliban’s main speech (1.2.331-344) reveals the nature of his enslavement and treatment, â€Å"Here you sty me in this hard rock, whiles you do keep me from the rest o’th’island.† Though it is not clear, it seems to me as though Prospero has imprisoned Caliban in a cave and is keeping him from the rest of the island. The reason for this treatment is much clearer , as Prospero tells us, â€Å"I have used thee, filth as thou art, with human care, and lodged thee in mine own cell, till thou didst seek to violate the honour of my child.† This tells us that Caliban has tried to rape Miranda at some point and that Prospero treated Caliban much better before the attempted rape occurred.

Preferences of the Banks in Hiring Accounting Technicians Essay

Accounting technicians are now creating their names in the accounting firm. They are accounting professionals that could work in all types of organizations and widely employed throughout the public sector, industry and commerce and in private accountancy practices. According to the website of Foras Aiseanna Saothair Training & Employment Authority (n.d) they assist professional accountants in collecting, checking and analyzing financial reports. They could work independently or as a part of a team. They also said that accounting technician must work with accuracy and methodically with figures. And they must capable of compiling and analyzing transactions such as administering payrolls, bookkeeping, and other financial transactions. This research paper aims to discuss the preferences of banks in hiring accounting technicians based on characteristics and qualification in the said position. It also focuses about what does accounting technicians mean and how to be one of them. At the same time, the researchers will tackle the job description of an accounting technician. I. Accounting Technicians are like professional accountants because according to the website of Accounting Technicians Ireland that they are also qualified to work at all degrees of finance. Accounting technicians are extensively employed throughout the public sector, industry, commerce and in private accountancy practices. According to Shaw (2006), â€Å"Certified accounting technicians are responsible for a variety of administrative task to try to improve the efficiency and profitability of a company. They are usually in the accounting or finance department of charities, banks, building societies or insurance companies.† An effective accounting technician... ...s Retrieved from: http://www.saipa.co.za/page/491/accounting-technicians †¢ Anonymous (2014) Accounting Technician: job description Retrieved from: http://targetjobs.co.uk/careers-advice/job-descriptions/276923-accounting-technician-job-description#employers †¢ Anonymous (2014) Certified Accounting Technician Graduates Retrieved from: http://www.accaglobal.com/gb/en/student/foundation-lvl-qual-student-journey/qualification-resources/foundation-lvl-qual/cat-qualification/cat-graduates.html †¢ Wikipedia. (2014, February 13) Association of Accounting Technicians Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Accounting_Technicians †¢ Robertson, Tanya (n.d) Disadvantages of being an Accountant Retrieved from: http://www.ehow.com/info_12152469_disadvantages-being-accountant.html †¢ Plunket College (n.d) Retrieved from: http://www.plunketcollege.ie/news.php

Benefits of Alcohol v Costs :: Social Issues, Informative, Persuasive

Benefits of Alcohol v. Social Costs   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An anti-alcohol bill could never pass in America’s pluralistic society. To ban alcohol in this country would be to step on the toes of many cultural leaders, and cause an extreme economic loss. Anything is dangerous in excess and perhaps the campaign on alcohol should be to teach moderation and better identify the genetic disorder of alcoholism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alcohol is a dynamic part of European culture. It has integrated America in an unwelcome manner. A majority of America is interested or descended from the ethnicity that flooded the American coasts in the 1800’s. However, the truth is that an Irish Wake could not take place without a pint. The communion of the Catholic Church would be phenomenally less meaningful without the communion wine. The descendants of an aristocrat understand that the value of a man is expressed in the total value of the wine cellar and in the imports from vacations abroad. There is no greater gesture than an expensive casks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The modern said and proven health benefits of a glass of wine with dinner have affected the American businessperson and encouraged this post-work tradition. However, there is no considerable difference in the percent of alcoholism since the release of this heart science. In Italy it is often a practice to put wine in with milk in baby bottles to help colic babies sleep. Gluttony is rarely a common trait, food or alcohol. However I do believe that alcohol gluttons pose a considerable health risk for American public and action needs to be taken against gluttons as a whole, in violation individual rights or not.

George Washington Proclamation Of Neutrality

Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality George Washington's decision to announce a policy of neutrality benefited the e nation because it protected them from foreign enemies and it prevented riots and in correction between political parties. The proclamation of neutrality, issued in 1 793, was published to Stay neutral between the French and British during their war and became the foundation f American policy toward Europe until the twentieth century.Both American political parties ink ewe that they were too weak to get involved in a war and too dependent on British trade. They gag reed that the United States could bankrupt the federal government if they entered the con flick. This policy of neutrality prevented the nation from being too attached to another, as stated in Washington's Farewell Address, â€Å"so likewise, a passionate attachment Of one nation for anon her produces a variety of evils. This decision also prevented the United States from creating enemies with the opposin g nation. Washington also wanted to announce a policy of neutrality b teen political parties. He states in the Farewell Address, â€Å"It agitates the community with LIFO ended jealousies and false alarms, kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection.It opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find s a facilitated access to the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another†¦ † This pass age explains how the dispute between the political parties will create riots between the people. Washington's decision to announce a policy of neutrality benefited the nation in numerous ways.

Histology Review Supplement

Histology Review Supplement The slides in this section are designed to provide a basic histology review related to topics introduced in the PhysioEx lab simulations and in your anatomy and physiology textbook. From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Tutorial. The opening screen should appear after a few seconds. The Sort by menu is located at the top left. Click on the white drop-down menu and select â€Å"Histology Review† from the list. You will note that the slides in the histology module are grouped in the following folders: Skeletal muscle slides Nervous tissue slides Endocrine tissue slides Cardiovascular tissue slides Respiratory tissue slides Digestive tissue slides Renal tissue slides Select the group of slides you wish to view, and then refer to the relevant worksheet in this section for a step-by-step tutorial. For example, if you would like to review the skeletal muscle slides, click on the Skeletal muscle slides folder, and then turn to the next page of this lab manual for the worksheet entitled Skeletal Muscle Tissue Review to begin your review. You will have the option of viewing slides with or without labels by clicking the On/Off buttons at the bottom left of the viewer. Since the slides in this module have been selected for their relevance to topics covered in the PhysioEx lab simulation, it is recommended that you complete the worksheets along with a related PhysioEx lab. For example, you might complete the Skeletal Muscle Tissue worksheet right before or after your instructor assigns you Exercise 2, the PhysioEx lab simulation on Skeletal Muscle Physiology. For additional histology review, turn to page 121. 23 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Skeletal muscle slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. Click slide 1. Skeletal muscle is composed of extremely large, cylindrical multinucleated cells called myofibers. The nuc lei of the skeletal muscle cell (myonuclei) are located peripherally just subjacent to the muscle cell plasmalemma (sarcolemma). The interior of the cell is literally filled with an assembly of contractile proteins (myofilaments) arranged in a specific overlapping pattern oriented parallel to the long axis of the cell. Click slides 2, 3. Sarcomeres are the functional units of skeletal muscle. The organization of contractile proteins into a regular end-to-end repeating pattern of sarcomeres along the length of each cell accounts for the striated, or striped, appearance of skeletal muscle in longitudinal section. Click slide 4. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sarcoplasmic reticulum), modified into an extensive network of membranous channels that store, release, and take up the calcium necessary for contraction, also functions to further organize the myofilaments inside the cell into cylindrical bundles called myofibrils. The stippled appearance of the cytoplasm in cells cut in cross section represents the internal organization of myofilaments bundled into myofibrils by the membranous sarcoplasmic reticulum. What is the functional unit of contraction in skeletal muscle? Click slide 5. The neural stimulus for contraction arises from the axon of a motor neuron whose axon terminal comes into close apposition to the muscle cell sarcolemma. Would you characterize skeletal muscle as voluntary or involuntary? Name the site of close juxtaposition of an axon terminal with the muscle cell plasmalemma. Skeletal muscle also has an extensive connective tissue component that, in addition to conducting blood vessels and nerves, becomes continuous with the connective tissue of its tendon. The tendon in turn is directly continuous with the connective tissue covering (the periosteum) of the adjacent bone. This connective tissue continuity from muscle to tendon to bone is the basis for movement of the musculoskeletal system. What is the name of the loose areolar connective tissue covering of an individual muscle fiber? endomysium The perimysium is a collagenous connective tissue layer that groups several muscle fibers together into bundles called fascicles . the sacromeres What are the two principal contractile proteins that compose the functional unit of contraction? Which connective tissue layer surrounds the entire muscle and merges with the connective tissue of tendons and aponeuroses? epimysium actin and myosin What is the specific relationship of the functional unit of contraction to the striated appearance of a skeletal muscle fiber? the repeating pattern of the sacromeres organized end to end 124 Histology Review Supplement Nervous Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Nervous tissue slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. Nervous tissue is composed of nerve cells (neurons) and a variety of support cells. Click slide 1. Each nerve cell consists of a cell body (perikaryon) and one or more cellular processes (axon and dendrites) extending from it. The cell body contains the nucleus, which is typically pale-staining and round or spherical in shape, and the usual assortment of cytoplasmic organelles. Characteristically, the nucleus features a prominent nucleolus often described as resembling the upil of a bird’s eye (â€Å"bird’s eye,† or â€Å"owl’s eye,† nucleolus). Click slide 2. The cytoplasm of the cell body is most often granular in appearance due to the presence of darkly stained clumps of ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum (Nissl bodies/ Nissl substance). Generally, a single axon arises from the cell body at a pale-staining region (axon hillock), devoid of Nissl b odies. The location and number of dendrites arising from the cell body varies greatly. Axons and dendrites are grouped together in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to form peripheral nerves. What is the primary unit of function in nervous tissue? Click slide 5. Because Schwann cells are aligned in series and myelinate only a small segment of a single axon, small gaps occur between the myelin sheaths of adjacent contiguous Schwann cells. The gaps, called nodes of Ranvier, together with the insulating properties of myelin, enhance the speed of conduction of electrical impulses along the length of the axon. Different support cells and myelinating cells are present in the central nervous system (CNS). What is the general name for all support cells within the CNS? neuroglial cells Name the specific myelinating cell of the CNS. Oligodendrocyte In the PNS, connective tissue also plays a role in providing support and organization. In fact, the composition and organization of the connective tissue investments of peripheral nerves are similar to those of skeletal muscle. Click slide 3. Each individual axon or dendrite is surrounded by a thin and delicate layer of loose connective tissue called the endoneurium (not shown. ) The perineurium, a slightly thicker layer of loose connective tissue, groups many axons and dendrites together into bundles (fascicles). The outermost epineurium surrounds the entire nerve with a thick layer of dense irregular connective tissue, often infiltrated with adipose tissue, that conveys blood and lymphatic vessels to the nerve. There is no connective tissue component within the nervous tissue of the CNS. What is the relationship of the endoneurium to the myelin sheath? neuron Name the pale-staining region of the cell body from which the axon arises. nucleus The support cells of the nervous system perform extremely important functions including support, protection, insulation, and maintenance and regulation of the microenvironment that surrounds the nerve cells. Click slides 3, 4. In the PNS, support cells surround cell bodies (satellite cells) and individual axons and dendrites (Schwann cells). Schwann cells, in particular, are responsible for wrapping their cell membrane jelly-roll style around axons and dendrites to form an insulating sleeve called the myelin sheath. enclosed and protects Histology Review Supplement 125 Endocrine Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Endocrine tissue slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. antrum, except for a thin rim of granulosa cells (corona radiata) that encircles the oocyte and a pedestal of granulosa cells (cumulus oophorus) that attaches the oocyte to the inner wall of the antrum. Which cells of the ovarian follicle secrete estrogen? Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland regulates metabolism by regulating the secretion of the hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) into the blood. Click slide 1. The gland is composed of fluid-filled (colloid) spheres, called follicles, formed by a simple epithelium that can be squamous to columnar depending upon the gland’s activity. The colloid stored in the follicles is primarily composed of a glycoprotein (thyroglobulin) that is synthesized and secreted by the follicular cells. Under the influence of the pituitary gland, the follicular cells take up the colloid, convert it into T3 and T4, and secrete the T3 and T4 into an extensive capillary network. A second population of cells, parafollicular (C) cells (not shown), may be found scattered through the follicular epithelium but often are present in the connective tissue between follicles. The pale-staining parafollicular cells secrete the protein hormone calcitonin. Why is the thyroid gland considered to be an endocrine organ? Uterus Click slides 4, 5, 6. The uterus is a hollow muscular organ with three major layers: the endometrium, myometrium, and either an adventitia or a serosa. The middle, myometrial layer of the uterine wall is composed of several layers of smooth muscle oriented in different planes. Click slide 6. The innermost (nearest the lumen) endometrial layer is further divided functionally into a superficial functional layer (stratum functionalis) and a deep basal layer (stratum basalis). Click slide 4. A simple columnar epithelium with both ciliated and nonciliated cells lines the surface of the endometrium. The endometrial connective tissue features an abundance of tubular endometrial glands that extend from the base to the surface of the layer. During the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle, shown here, the endometrium becomes thicker as the glands and blood vessels proliferate. Click slide 5. In the secretory phase, the endometrium and its glands and blood vessels are fully expanded. Click slide 6. In the menstrual phase, the glands and blood vessels degenerate as the functional layer of the endometrium sloughs away. The deep basal layer (stratum basalis) is not sloughed and will regenerate the endometrium during the next proliferative phase. Which layer of the endometrium is shed during the menstrual phase of the menstrual cycle? it secrets a horomone What hormone secreted by the pituitary gland controls the synthesis and secretion of T3 and T4? TSH – thyroid stimulating hormone What is the function of calcitonin? causes CA to be released into blood Ovary The ovary is an organ that serves both an exocrine function in producing eggs (ova) and an endocrine function in secreting the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Click slide 2. Grossly, the ovary is divided into a peripherally located cortex in which the oocytes (precursors to the ovulated egg) develop and a central medulla in which connective tissue surrounds blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. The oocytes, together with supporting cells (granulosa cells), form the ovarian follicles seen in the cortex at various stages of development. Click slide 3. As an individual oocyte grows, granulosa cells proliferate from a single layer of cuboidal cells that surround the oocyte to a multicellular layer that defines a fluid-filled spherical follicle. In a mature follicle (Graafian follicle), the granulosa cells are displaced to the periphery of the fluid-filled 126 Histology Review Supplement endometrium What is the function of the deep basal layer (stratum basalis) of the endometrium? regenerate new superficial layer What composes a serosa? perimetrium How does the serosa of the uterus, where present, differ from visceral peritoneum? location Pancreas The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland. Click slide 7. The exocrine portion is characterized by glandular secretory units (acini) formed by a simple epithelium of triangular or pyramidal cells that encircle a small central lumen. The central lumen is the direct connection to the duct system that conveys the exocrine secretions out of the gland. Scattered among the exocrine secretory units are the pale-staining clusters of cells that compose the endocrine portion of the gland. The cells that form these clusters, called pancreatic islet cells (islets of Langerhans), secrete a number of hormones, including insulin and glucagon. Do the pancreatic islets secrete their hormones into the same duct system used by the exocrine secretory cells? no, but directly into blood stream Histology Review Supplement 127 Cardiovascular Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Cardiovascular Tissue Slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. Which component of the intercalated disc is a junction that provides the intercellular communication required for the myocardium to perform as a functional syncytium? gap juntions Blood Vessels Blood vessels form a system of conduits through which lifesustaining blood is conveyed from the heart to all parts of the body and back to the heart again. Click slide 3. Generally, the wall of every vessel is described as being composed of three layers, or tunics. The tunica intima, or tunica interna, a simple squamous endothelium and a small amount of subjacent loose connective tissue, is the innermost layer adjacent to the vessel lumen. Smooth muscle and elastin are the predominant constituents of the middle tunica media, and the outermost tunica adventitia, or tunica externa, is a connective tissue layer of variable thickness that provides support and transmits smaller blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves. The thickness of each tunic varies widely with location and function of the vessel. Arteries, subjected to considerable pressure fluctuations, have thicker walls overall, with the tunica media being thicker than the tunica adventitia. Veins, in contrast, are subjected to much lower pressures and have thinner walls overall, with the tunica adventitia often outsizing the tunica media. Because thin-walled veins conduct blood back to the heart against gravity, valves (not present in arteries) also are present at intervals to prevent backflow. In capillaries, where exchange occurs between the blood and tissues, the tunica intima alone composes the vessel wall. The tunica media of the aorta would have a much greater proportion of what type of tissue than a small artery? Heart The heart is a four-chambered muscular pump. Although its wall can be divided into three distinct histological layers (endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium), the cardiac muscle of the myocardium composes the bulk of the heart wall. Click slide 1. Contractile cardiac muscle cells (myocytes, myofibers) have the same striated appearance as skeletal muscle, but are branched rather than cylindrical in shape and have one (occasionally two) nucleus (myonucleus) rather than many. The cytoplasmic striations represent the same organization of myofilaments (sarcomeres) and alignment of sarcomeres as in skeletal muscle, and the mechanism of contraction is the same. The intercalated disc, however, is a feature unique to cardiac muscle. The densely stained structure is a complex of intercellular junctions (desmosomes, gap junctions, fasciae adherens) that structurally and functionally link cardiac muscle cells end to end. A second population of cells in the myocardium composes the noncontractile intrinsic conduction system (nodal system). Although cardiac muscle is autorhythmic, meaning it has the ability to contract involuntarily in the absence of extrinsic innervation provided by the nervous system, it is the intrinsic conduction system that prescribes the rate and orderly sequence of contraction. Extrinsic innervation only modulates the inherent activity. Click slide 2. Of the various components of the noncontractile intrinsic conduction system, Purkinje fibers are the most readily observed histologically. They are particularly abundant in the ventricular myocardium and are recognized by their very pale-staining cytoplasm and larger diameter. The connective tissue component of cardiac muscle is relatively sparse and lacks the organization present in skeletal muscle. Which component of the intercalated disc is a strong intercellular junction that functions to keep cells from being pulled apart during contraction? lastic fiber In general, which vessel would have a larger lumen, an artery or its corresponding vein? vein Why would the tunica media and tunica adventitia not be present in a capillary? to allow material exchange between blood and tissue desmosomes What is a functional syncytium? Because the cardiac muscle cells are mechanically, chemically, and electrically connecte d to one another, the entire tissue resembles a single, enormous muscle cell. 128 Histology Review Supplement Respiratory Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Respiratory Tissue Slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. The respiratory system serves both to conduct oxygenated air deep into the lungs and to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood. The trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles are the part of the system of airways that conduct air into the lungs. Click slide 2. The trachea and bronchi are similar in morphology. Their lumens are lined by pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells (respiratory epithelium), underlain by a connective tissue lamina propria and a deeper connective tissue submucosa with coiled sero-mucous glands that open onto the surface lining of the airway lumen. Click slide 1. Deep to the submucosa are the hyaline cartilage rings that add structure to the wall of the airway and prevent its collapse. Peripheral to the cartilage is a connective tissue adventitia. The sero-mucous glands are also visible in this slide. Click slide 3. The bronchioles, in contrast, are much smaller in diameter with a continuous layer of smooth muscle in place of the cartilaginous reinforcements. A gradual decrease in the height of the epithelium to simple columnar also occurs as the bronchioles decrease in diameter. Distally the bronchioles give way to the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli in which gas exchange occurs. In the respiratory bronchiole, the epithelium becomes simple cuboidal and the continuous smooth muscle layer is interrupted at intervals by the presence of alveoli inserted into the bronchiolar wall. Click slide 4. Although some exchange occurs in the respiratory bronchiole, it is within the alveoli of the alveolar ducts and sacs that the preponderance of gas exchange transpires. Here the walls of the alveoli, devoid of smooth muscle, are reduced in thickness to the thinnest possible juxtaposition of simple squamous alveolar cell to simple squamous capillary endothelial cell. What are the primary functions of the respiratory epithelium? What is the primary functional unit of the lung? alveoli The alveolar wall is very delicate and subject to collapse. Why is there no smooth muscle present in its wall for support? smooth muscle would hinder the gas exchange What are the three basic components of the air-blood barrier? alveolar, capillary walls and basal laminae humidfy, filter and warm incoming air Why doesn’t gas exchange occur in bronchi? bronchi have no alveoli Histology Review Supplement 129 Digestive Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Digestive Tissue Slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. smooth muscle nearest the stomach, and a mix of both skeletal and smooth muscle in between. 4. The outermost layer of the esophagus is an adventitia for the portion of the esophagus in the thorax, and a serosa after the esophagus penetrates the diaphragm and enters the abdominal cavity. Click slide 3. Here we can see the abrupt change in epithelium at the gastroesophageal junction, where the esophagus becomes continuous with the stomach. Briefly explain the difference between an adventitia and a serosa. Salivary Gland The digestive process begins in the mouth with the physical breakdown of food by mastication. At the same time salivary gland secretions moisten the food and begin to hydrolyze carbohydrates. The saliva that enters the mouth is a mix of serous secretions and mucus (mucin) produced by the three major pairs of salivary glands. Click slide 1. The secretory units of the salivary tissue shown here are composed predominantly of clusters of pale-staining mucussecreting cells. More darkly stained serous cells cluster to form a demilune (half moon) adjacent to the lumen and contribute a clear fluid to the salivary secretion. Salivary secretions flow to the mouth from the respective glands through a well-developed duct system. Are salivary glands endocrine or exocrine glands? serosa secret serous fluid, and adventitia don't. Stomach The wall of the stomach has the same basic four-layered organization as that of the esophagus. Click slide 4. The mucosa of the stomach consists of a simple columnar epithelium, a thin connective tissue lamina propria, and a thin muscularis mucosa. The most significant feature of the stomach mucosa is that the epithelium invaginates deeply into the lamina propria to form superficial gastric pits and deeper gastric glands. Although the epithelium of the stomach is composed of a variety of cell types, each with a unique and important function, only three are mentioned here (see slide 5). Click slide 5. The surface mucous cells are simple columnar cells that line the gastric pits and secrete mucus continuously onto the surface of the epithelium. The large round pink- to red-stained parietal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) line the upper half of the gastric glands; more abundant in the lower half of the gastric glands are the chief cells (not shown), usually stained blue, that secrete pepsinogen (a precursor to pepsin). Click slide 4. The submucosa is similar to that of the esophagus but without glands. The muscularis externa has the two typical circumferential and longitudinal layers of smooth muscle, plus an extra layer of smooth muscle oriented obliquely. The stomach’s outermost layer is a serosa. What is the function of the mucus secreted by surface mucous cells? exocrine Which salivary secretion, mucous or serous, is more thin and watery in consistency? serous Esophagus Through contractions of its muscular wall (peristalsis), the esophagus propels food from the mouth to the stomach. Four major layers are apparent when the wall of the esophagus is cut in transverse section: Click slide 2. 1. The mucosa adjacent to the lumen consists of a nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, its immediately subjacent connective tissue (lamina propria) containing blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels, and cells of the immune system, and a thin smooth muscle layer (muscularis mucosa) forms the boundary between the mucosa and the submucosa. Because this slide is a low magnification view, it is not possible to discern all parts of the mucosa nor the boundary between it and the submucosa. 2. The submucosa is a layer of connective tissue of variable density, traversed by larger caliber vessels and nerves, that houses the mucus-secreting esophageal glands whose secretions protect the epithelium and further lubricate the passing food bolus. 3. Much of the substance of the esophageal wall consists of both circumferentially and longitudinally oriented layers of muscle called the muscularis externa. The muscularis externa is composed of skeletal muscle nearest the mouth, 130 Histology Review Supplement protects the epithelium Small Intestine The key to understanding the histology of the small intestine lies in knowing that its major function is absorption. To that end, its absorptive surface area has been amplified greatly in the following ways: 1. The mucosa and submucosa are thrown into permanent folds (plicae circulares). 2. Fingerlike extensions of the lamina propria form villi (singular: villus) that protrude into the intestinal lumen (click slide 7). 3. The individual simple columnar epithelial cells (enterocytes) that cover the villi have microvilli (a brush border), tiny projections of apical plasma membrane to increase their absorptive surface area (click slide 6). Click slide 7. Although all three segments of the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) possess villi and tubular crypts of Lieberkuhn that project deep into the mucosa between villi, some unique features are present in particular segments. For example, large mucous glands (duodenal glands, Brunner’s glands) are present in the submucosa of the duodenum. In addition, permanent aggregates of lymphatic tissue (Peyer’s patches) are a unique characteristic of the ileum (click slide 8). Aside from these specific features and the fact that the height of the villi vary from quite tall in the duodenum to fairly short in the terminal ileum, the overall morphology of mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa is quite similar in all three segments. Why is it important for the duodenum to add large quantities of mucus (from the duodenal glands) to the partially digested food entering it from the stomach? Click slide 10. Located in the surrounding connective tissue, roughly at the points of the hexagon where three lobules meet, is the portal triad (portal canal). Click slide 12. The three constituents of the portal triad include a branch of the hepatic artery, a branch of the hepatic portal vein, and a bile duct. Both the hepatic artery and portal vein empty their oxygen-rich blood and nutrient-rich blood, respectively, into the sinusoids. This blood mixes in the sinusoids and flows centrally in between and around the hepatocytes toward the central vein. Bile, produced by hepatocytes, is secreted into very small channels (bile canaliculi) and flows peripherally (away from the central vein) to the bile duct. Thus, the flow of blood is from peripheral to central in a hepatic lobule, while the bile flow is from central to peripheral. What general type of cell is the phagocytic Kupffer cell? immune Blood in the portal vein flows directly from what organs? liver What is the function of bile in the digestive process? protects intestinal walls raises alkalinity to create ideal pH Colon Click slide 9. The four-layered organization is maintained in the wall of the colon, but the colon has no villi, only crypts of Lieberkuhn. Simple columnar epithelial cells (enterocytes with microvilli) are present to absorb water from the digested food mass, and the numbers of mucous goblet cells are increased substantially, especially toward the distal end of the colon. Why is it important to have an abundance of mucous goblet cells in the colon? because they secrete mucous, which is important to fascilitate degestion Pancreas Click slide 13. The exocrine portion of the pancreas synthesizes and secretes pancreatic enzymes. The individual exocrine secretory unit, or acinus, is formed by a group of pyramidal-shaped pancreatic acinar cells clustered around a central lumen into which they secrete their products. A system of pancreatic ducts then transports the enzymes to the duodenum where they are added to the lumen contents to further aid digestion. The groups of pale-staining cells are the endocrine pancreatic islet (islets of Langerhans) cells. Liver The functional tissue of the liver is organized into hexagonally shaped cylindrical lobules, each delineated by connective tissue. Click slide 11. Within the lobule, large rounded hepatocytes form linear cords that radiate peripherally from the center of the lobule at the central vein to the surrounding connective tissue. Blood sinusoids lined by simple squamous endothelial cells and darkly stained phagocytic Kupffer cells are interposed between cords of hepatocytes in the same radiating pattern. Histology Review Supplement 131 Renal Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Renal Tissue Slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. The many functions of the kidney include filtration, absorption, and secretion. The kidney filters the blood of metabolic wastes, water, and electrolytes and reabsorbs most of the water and sodium ions filtered to regulate and maintain the body’s fluid volume and electrolyte balance. The kidney also plays an endocrine role in secreting compounds that increase blood pressure and stimulate red blood cell production. The uriniferous tubule is the functional unit of the kidney. It consists of two components: the nephron to filter and the collecting tubules and ducts to carry away the filtrate. Click slide 1. The nephron itself consists of the renal corpuscle, an intimate association of the glomerular capillaries (glomerulus) with the cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule, and a single elongated renal tubule consisting of segments regionally and sequentially named the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), the descending and ascending segments of the loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule (DCT). Click slide 2. A closer look at the renal corpuscle shows both the simple squamous epithelium of the outer layer (parietal layer) of the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule) and the specialized inner layer (visceral layer) of podocytes that extend footlike processes to completely envelop the capillaries of the renal glomerulus. Processes of adjacent podocytes interdigitate with one another, leaving only small slits (filtration slits) between the processes through which fluid from the blood is filtered. The filtrate then flows into the urinary space that is directly continuous with the first segment of the renal tubule, the PCT. The PCT is lined by robust cuboidal cells equipped with microvilli to greatly increase the surface area of the side of the cell facing the lumen. Click slide 3. In the loop of Henle, lining cells are simple squamous to simple cuboidal. The DCT cells are also simple cuboidal but are usually much smaller than those of the PCT. The sparse distribution of microvilli, if present at all, on the cells of the DCT relates to their lesser role in absorption. The DCT is continuous directly with the collecting tubules and collecting ducts that drain the filtrate out of the kidney. The large renal artery and its many subdivisions provide an abundant blood supply to the kidney. The smallest distal branches of the renal artery become the afferent arterioles that directly supply the capillaries of the glomerulus. In a unique situation, blood from the glomerular capillaries passes into the efferent arteriole rather than into a venule. The efferent arteriole then perfuses two more capillary beds, the peritubular capillary bed and vasa recta that provide nutrient blood to the kidney tissue itself, before ultimately draining into the renal venous system. In which segment of the renal tubule does roughly 75–80% of reabsorption occur? proximal convoluted tubules How are proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) cells similar to enterocytes of the small intestine? both absorb water, salts, vitamins, phosphates Starting from inside the glomerular capillary through to the urinary space, what are the three layers through which the filtrate must pass? glomerular capillary enothelium, glomrular basement membrane visceral layer of bowman's capsule Under normal circumstances in a healthy individual, would red blood cells or any other cells be present in the renal filtrate? no In addition to providing nutrients to the kidney tubules, what is one other function of the capillaries in the peritubular capillary bed? they deliver blood to tubular sites 132 Histology Review Supplement